Physical attractiveness


Adonis restored and completed by François Duquesnoy, formerly in the collection of Cardinal Mazarin (Louvre Museum).
Venus de Milo on display at the Louvre

Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as aesthetically pleasing or beautiful, and can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness and physique. What is considered physically attractive is dependent on universal perceptions common to all human cultures, and on cultural and social aspects, as well as individual subjective preferences.

Despite universally held perceptions of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women do.[1] This can be explained by evolutionary psychology as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness (for example, symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features.[1] There appear to be universal standards regarding attractiveness, such that raters agree who is and isn't attractive both within and across cultures and ethnicity.[2]

Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[3] In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it.[4] Physical attractiveness is distinct from sexual attraction; humans often regard children and young individuals—both human and animal—as being highly attractive for various reasons, but without sexual attraction.

Contents

Determinants of male physical attractiveness

V-shaped torso and muscularity

Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.[5] Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.[5] Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception.[6] A normal level of the hormone testosterone is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction.

A near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a v-shaped torso: a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a v-shaped torso generally holds true. Consistently, men with a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.75 or lower are viewed as considerably more attractive than men with more even waists and shoulders.[7]

Height and erect posture

Females' sexual attraction towards a male may be partly determined by the height of the man.[8] Height in men may be associated with status in many cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them. This preference may have been passed on genetically.[citation needed] As a corollary, shorter men may be viewed as less attractive, ceteris paribus, for casual and intended long-term relationships. Certain studies conducted of women's personal ads support the existence of this preference; in one study of ads requesting height in a mate, 80 percent requested a height of 6 feet or taller. However, this percentage only was of ads specifying height in the first place, and therefore possibly self-selected and/or biased by a third factor such as female height.[9]

Additionally, women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing.[9]

Some research conducted by Cosmopolitan Magazine suggests that women are statistically more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long-term commitment, while the opposite is true when a short-term relationship is intended.[10] Cosmopolitan published an article claiming that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times their own height. In addition, the article claimed that women may have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their menstrual cycle at the time. While women usually desire men to be at least the same height as themselves or taller, many other factors also determine male attractiveness.[10]

Variability in preferences

It has been shown that women prefer more masculine men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more feminine men during other parts of the cycle.[11] This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers.[12] Masculine facial features are characterized by a prominent chin, strong brow, a strong nose, a high forehead[citation needed] and a prominent lower jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced. Men with facial scars are more attractive to women at various phases of the menstral cycle, this reinforces the perception that facial scars are a symbol of high testosterone and masculinity.[13]

Determinants of female physical attractiveness

The beauty of Maud Gonne (pictured here ca. 1900) was enough to drive the poet William Butler Yeats half mad.

Features such as a symmetrical face, full lips, and low waist-hip ratio are commonly considered physically attractive when part of a female, because they are thought to indicate physical health and high fertility to a potential mate. The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of fertility such as youth,[14] waist-hip ratio,[15] mid upper arm circumference,[16] breast size,[17] breast symmetry,[18] body mass proportion[19] and facial symmetry.[20][21]

Signals of youth

Because female fecundity typically declines after the late twenties, youth is an important aspect of physical attractiveness[22]. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife, with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates.[14] The reasons for this preference are currently debated.

This preference for youth has also led to a preference of neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Fair hair, perky breasts, [23] full, red lips,[24] clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women.[14]

Breast size

Full breasts may be attractive to men in Western societies because women with higher breast to under-breast ratios typically have higher levels of the sex hormone, estradiol, which promotes fertility. [25]

Larger breasts also display the aging process more noticably, hence they are an "honest" indicator of long-term fertility.[26]

Proportion of body mass to body structure

Social ideals of body proportions can change. This 1895 advertisement promotes a weight gain product.

The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.[19] The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing.[27][28] Men do not appear to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status.[28]

However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[28]

The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[29]

Waist-hip ratio

Main article: waist-hip ratio

Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness across all cultures.[28] Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Scarlett Johansson, Marilyn Monroe, Salma Hayek, Sophia Loren, and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7.[30] In other cultures, preferences vary,[31] ranging from 0.6 in China,[32] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[33][34][35] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[36][37]

Height

Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves.[38][39] Women .7 to 1.7 standard deviations below the mean in height are the most reproductively successful. One possible explanation is that shorter females may reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts. An alternative explanation is that since most men demonstrate a preference for women shorter than themselves, being shorter allows a woman access to a larger potential dating pool.[38]

Prototypicality as beauty

See also: Koinophilia
See also: Averageness

Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more common features a face bears, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive. This may be a result of the familiarity of common facial features, an example of the mere exposure effect. When many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite.[40]

One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the prototype. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This may reveal an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous."[20] However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features.

Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this "prototypicality." This may show the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explain the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a gene pool.

Skin tone

 The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (November 2008)

In his foreword to Peter Frost's 2005 Fair Women, Dark Men, U. of Washington sociologist Pierre L. van den Berghe summarizes:

"Although virtually all cultures express a marked preference for fair female skin, even those with little or no exposure to European imperialism, and even those whose members are heavily pigmented, many are indifferent to male pigmentation or even prefer men to be darker."[41] A consequence of this is that, since higher-ranking men get to marry the more attractive women, the upper classes of a society generally tend to develop a lighter complexion than the lower classes by sexual selection (see also Fisherian runaway).[42]

In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent[citation needed]. In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with beauty and youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of neoteny. Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. While in Malaysia, up to 48% of Malaysian women use skin whitening products.

Social effects of attractiveness

 This article contains weasel words, vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (April 2009)

When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play.

Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. However, this may be due to self-fulfilling prophecy; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[43][44]

Physical attractiveness can have various effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[45] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by his/her peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. One reason that unattractive people might not have friends is that they have low self-esteem.

Some have proposed that discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance should be referred to as Lookism.[citation needed]

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money.[43][44][46]

However, there are downsides to being physically attractive. Young beautiful women are considered to be the most vulnerable to stalking and rape.[47][48] Handsome men are often thought to be homosexual.[49] Beautiful women are seen as less likely to make good mothers and more often than not, are not considered to be "marriage material". Physically attractive men and women are seen as more likely to seek divorce, as well as contract, transmit and carry sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and are thought of as being more likely to have sexual relationships that are considered to be inappropriate.[50]

Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is.[51]

Some researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in terms of sexual behavior.[52][53] Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.[54]

Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment and have the most reproductive success. Therefore, their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.[55][56][57]

See also

Sister project Look up physique, hotness, handsomeness, belle, or beau in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Notes

  1. ^ a b Buss, David (2003) [1994] (hardcover). The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 57, 58, 60–63. 
  2. ^ Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review," J.H. Langlois, L. Kalakanis, A.J. Rubenstein, A. Larson, M. Hallam, & M. Smoot, Psychological Bulletin, 2000, 126, 390-423.
  3. ^ Lorenz, Kate. (2005). "Do Pretty People Earn More?" www.CNN.com.
  4. ^ Dion, K., Berscheid, E., Walster, E. (1972). "What is beautiful is good." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290.
  5. ^ a b Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981.
  6. ^ ParaPundit: Erroneous Views Of Western Men On Female Ideals For Male Bodies?
  7. ^ http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article855409.ece Women seduced by ‘V man’ with a matted chest from www.timesonline.com.
  8. ^ Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000.
  9. ^ a b Buss, David (2003) [1994] (hardcover). The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 38–40. 
  10. ^ a b Sohn, E. Health, Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9.
  11. ^ "Women's choice of men goes in cycles". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/376321.stm. Retrieved on 30 November 2006. 
  12. ^ University of Michigan.
  13. ^ [1]
  14. ^ a b c Buss, David (2003) [1994] (hardcover). The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 51–54. 
  15. ^ Singh, D 1993
  16. ^ Girl power; Human evolution.(Mothers, malnutrition and daughters) Economist (US), The, May, 22, 2003.
  17. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3682657.stm Hourglass figure fertility link - BBC News
  18. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=eJutAwmKCPEC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=large+breasts+fertility&source=bl&ots=gow3h4Wki9&sig=57bTSJcRyqh73RoY6rnUS5VzLMo&hl=en&ei=WV0RSpfgO5SstgfG1KyGCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9#PPA102,M1 Sex: A Natural History by Joann Ellison Rodgers
  19. ^ a b Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998
  20. ^ a b Berscheid and Reis, 1998
  21. ^ Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002)
  22. ^ Sex Differences: Developmental and Evolutionary Strategies by Linda Mealey and Mother Nature by Sarah Hrdy.
  23. ^ http://www.lasvegasweekly.com/news/2009/jan/29/whats-your-genes/ Las Vegas Weekly - What's that in your genes?
  24. ^ http://newhumanist.org.uk/2051 Red Alert - New Humanist
  25. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3682657.stm Hourglass figure fertility link - BBC News
  26. ^ http://www.uoregon.edu/~sugiyama/docs/LSsugiyama-buss_c09CEforrequests.pdf Lawrence S. Sugiyama
  27. ^ Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B., & Wu, C.H. 1995
  28. ^ a b c d Buss, David (2003) [1994] (hardcover). The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 55,56. 
  29. ^ Furnham, Adrian, Gianna Caroline Fischer, Lauren Tanner, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland 1998.
  30. ^ BMI and Waist-hip Ratio: The Magic Number for Health and Beauty
  31. ^ Fisher, M.L.; Voracek M. (June 2006). "The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness". J Cosmet Dermatol 5 (2): 190–4. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x. PMID 17173598. 
  32. ^ Dixson, B.J.; Dixson A.F., Li B., Anderson M.J. (January 2007). "Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China". Am J Hum Biol 19 (1): 88–95. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20584. PMID 17160976. 
  33. ^ Marlowe, F.; Wetsman, A. (2001). "Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences 30 (3): 481–489. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ehbe-lab/acrobatfiles/preferred%20waist.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-04. 
  34. ^ Marlowe, F.W.; Apicella, C.L. and Reed, D. (2005). "Men’s Preferences for Women’s Profile Waist-Hip-Ratio in Two Societies" (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior 26: 458–468. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/profilewhr.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-04. 
  35. ^ Dixson, B.J.; Dixson A.F., Morgan B., Anderson M.J. (June 2007). "Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon". Arch Sex Behav 36 (3): 369–75. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8. PMID 17136587. 
  36. ^ Freedman, R.E.; Carter M.M., Sbrocco T., Gray JJ. (August 2007). "Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?". Eat Behav 8 (3): 319–33. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008. PMID 17606230. 
  37. ^ Freedman, R.E.; Carter M.M., Sbrocco T., Gray J.J. (July 2004). "Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples". Eat Behav. 5 (3): 191–8. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002. PMID 15135331. 
  38. ^ a b BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’”
  39. ^ http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/daniel.nettle/procroysoc.pdf
  40. ^ Buss, David (2003) [1994] (hardcover). The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 54,55. 
  41. ^ see Steve Sailer, Blondes Have Deeper Roots (2005)
  42. ^ Peter Frost "Fair Women, Dark Men: The Forgotten Roots of Color Prejudice," (2005).
  43. ^ a b Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977
  44. ^ a b Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979)
  45. ^ http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/07/08/looks/ Do Pretty People Earn More from cnn.com
  46. ^ De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; 1999
  47. ^ Myths and Facts about Sexual Violence
  48. ^ Statistics Sheet: Stalking and Criminal Harassment
  49. ^ When gay is pretty: physical attractiveness and low homophobia
  50. ^ Etcoff pp.83-88
  51. ^ Science rewrites the rules of attraction
  52. ^ Cowley, Geoffrey. "The Biology of beauty". Newsweek. June 3, 1996
  53. ^ Sexual atrractiveness predicted by voice attractiveness
  54. ^ Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187
  55. ^ Rhodes, Gillian; Zebrowitz, Leslie, A. (2002). Facial Attractiveness - Evolutionary, Cognitive, and Social Perspectives. Ablex. ISBN 1567506364. 
  56. ^ Edler R. J. "Background Considerations to Facial Aesthetics", (British) Journal of Orthodontics, Vol. 28, No. 2, June 2001, pp. 159-168.
  57. ^ Zaidel D. W., Aarde S. M., and Baig, K. "Appearance of symmetry, beauty, and health in human faces", Brain and Cognition 57(3):(2005) pp. 261-263.

References and bibliography

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  • Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; (1977) "Sexism and 'beautyism' in personnel consultant decision making." Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 301-310.
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  • Cunningham, M.R.; Roberts, A.R.; Barbee, A. P.; Duren P.B.; & Wu, C.H.; (1995) "Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours: Consistency and Variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness". Journal of Personality & social psychology, 68, 261 - 279.
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